Nicolas Rashevsky (November 9, 1899 – January 16, 1972) was an American

theoretical physicist Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to experimental physics, which uses experimen ...

who was one of the pioneers of

mathematical biology Mathematical and theoretical biology, or biomathematics, is a branch of biology which employs theoretical analysis, mathematical models and abstractions of the living organisms to investigate the principles that govern the structure, development a ...

, and is also considered the father of mathematical biophysics and theoretical biology. Robert Rosen ''Essays on Life'' (2004)

Evelyn Fox Keller Evelyn Fox Keller (born March 20, 1936) is an American physicist, author and feminist. She is Professor Emerita of History and Philosophy of Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Keller's early work concentrated at the intersect ...

''Making Sense of Life'' pp. 82-89

Academic career

He studied

theoretical physics Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to experimental physics, which uses experim ...

at the St. Vladimir Imperial University of Kiev. He left Russia after the

October Revolution The October Revolution,. officially known as the Great October Socialist Revolution. in the Soviet Union, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was a revolution in Russia led by the Bolshevik Party of Vladimir Lenin that was a key moment ...

, emigrating first to

Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a list of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolia, Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with ...

, then to

Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populous ...

France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...

, and finally to the US in 1924. In USA he worked at first for the Westinghouse Research Labs in

Pittsburgh Pittsburgh ( ) is a city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, United States, and the county seat of Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, Allegheny County. It is the most populous city in both Allegheny County and Wester ...

where he focused on the theoretical physics modeling of the cell division and the mathematics of cell fission. He was awarded a Rockefeller Fellowship in 1934 and went to the University of Chicago to take up the appointment of assistant professor in the Department of Physiology. In 1938, inspired by reading

On Growth and Form ''On Growth and Form'' is a book by the Scottish mathematical biologist D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson (1860–1948). The book is long – 793 pages in the first edition of 1917, 1116 pages in the second edition of 1942. The book covers many topi ...

(1917) by

D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson Sir D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson CB FRS FRSE (2 May 1860 – 21 June 1948) was a Scottish biologist, mathematician and classics scholar. He was a pioneer of mathematical and theoretical biology, travelled on expeditions to the Bering Strait an ...

, he made his first major contribution by publishing his first book on ''Mathematical Biophysics'', and then in 1939 he also founded the first

international journal entitled
''The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics'' (BMB)
these two essential contributions founded the field of

, with the BMB journal serving as the focus of contributing mathematical biologists over the last 70 years.

Major scientific contributions

In 1938 he published one of the first books on mathematical biology and mathematical biophysics entitled: "''Mathematical Biophysics: Physico-Mathematical Foundations of Biology''." This fundamental book was eventually published in three revised editions, the last revision appearing in two volumes in 1960. It was followed in 1940 by "''Advances and applications of mathematical biology.''", and in 1947 by "''Mathematical theory of human relations''", an approach to a mathematical model of society. In the same year he established the World' s first PhD program in

Mathematical Biology Mathematical and theoretical biology, or biomathematics, is a branch of biology which employs theoretical analysis, mathematical models and abstractions of the living organisms to investigate the principles that govern the structure, development a ...

at the

University of Chicago The University of Chicago (UChicago, Chicago, U of C, or UChi) is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. Its main campus is located in Chicago's Hyde Park neighborhood. The University of Chicago is consistently ranked among the b ...

. In the early 1930s, Rashevsky developed the first model of

neural networks A neural network is a network or circuit of biological neurons, or, in a modern sense, an artificial neural network, composed of artificial neurons or nodes. Thus, a neural network is either a biological neural network, made up of biological ...

. This was paraphrased in a Boolean context by his student Walter Pitts together with Warren McCulloch, in an article published in Rashevsky's Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics in 1943. The Pitts-McCulloch article subsequently became extremely influential for research on artificial intelligence and artificial neural networks. His later efforts focused on the topology of biological systems, the formulation of fundamental principles in biology, relational biology,

set theory Set theory is the branch of mathematical logic that studies sets, which can be informally described as collections of objects. Although objects of any kind can be collected into a set, set theory, as a branch of mathematics, is mostly conce ...

and

propositional logic Propositional calculus is a branch of logic. It is also called propositional logic, statement logic, sentential calculus, sentential logic, or sometimes zeroth-order logic. It deals with propositions (which can be true or false) and relations b ...

formulation of the hierarchical organization of organisms and human societies. In the second half of the 1960s, he introduced the concept of "organismic sets" that provided a unified framework for physics, biology and sociology. This was subsequently developed by other authors through applications of

category theory Category theory is a general theory of mathematical structures and their relations that was introduced by Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane in the middle of the 20th century in their foundational work on algebraic topology. Nowadays, cate ...

to relational biology, organismic supercategories and

Complex Systems Biology Complex systems biology (CSB) is a branch or subfield of mathematical and theoretical biology invented by Robert Rosen concerned with complexity of both structure and function in biological organisms, as well as the emergence and evolution of orga ...

.http://planetphysics.org/encyclopedia/OrganismicSupercategoriesAndSuperComplexSystemBiodynamics.html Organismic Supercategories and Complex Systems Biology

Rashevsky's most notable students

Some of Rashevsky's most outstanding PhD students who earned their doctorate under his supervision were:

George Karreman George Karreman (4 November 1920 – 27 February 1997) was a Dutch-born US physicist, mathematical biophysicist and mathematical/ theoretical biologist. He was the first president of the Society for Mathematical Biology (SMB). Biography Karrema ...

Herbert Daniel Landahl Herbert may refer to: People Individuals * Herbert (musician), a pseudonym of Matthew Herbert Name * Herbert (given name) * Herbert (surname) Places Antarctica * Herbert Mountains, Coats Land * Herbert Sound, Graham Land Australia * Herbert, ...

Clyde Coombs Clyde Hamilton Coombs (July 22, 1912 – February 4, 1988) was an American psychologist specializing in the field of Psychometrics, mathematical psychology. He devised a voting system, that was hence named Coombs' method. Coombs founded the Mathem ...

, Robert Rosen and

Anatol Rapoport Anatol Rapoport ( uk, Анатолій Борисович Рапопо́рт; russian: Анато́лий Бори́сович Рапопо́рт; May 22, 1911January 20, 2007) was an American mathematical psychologist. He contributed to genera ...

. In 1948, Anatol Rapoport took over Rashevsky's course in mathematical biology, so that Rashevsky could teach

mathematical sociology Mathematical sociology or the sociology of mathematics is an interdisciplinary field of research concerned both with the use of mathematics within sociological research as well as research into the relationships that exist between maths and socie ...

instead.

Administrative and political obstacles

However, his more advanced ideas and abstract relational biology concepts found little support in the beginning amongst practicing experimental or molecular biologists, although current developments in

complex systems biology Complex systems biology (CSB) is a branch or subfield of mathematical and theoretical biology invented by Robert Rosen concerned with complexity of both structure and function in biological organisms, as well as the emergence and evolution of orga ...

clearly follow in his footsteps. In 1954 the budget for his Committee of Mathematical Biology was drastically cut; however, this was at least in part politically imposed, rather than scientifically, motivated. Thus, the subsequent

administration—notably represented by the genetics

Nobel laureate The Nobel Prizes ( sv, Nobelpriset, no, Nobelprisen) are awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Swedish Academy, the Karolinska Institutet, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee to individuals and organizations who make out ...

George Wells Beadle George Wells Beadle (October 22, 1903 – June 9, 1989) was an American geneticist. In 1958 he shared one-half of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Edward Tatum for their discovery of the role of genes in regulating biochemical eve ...

— who reversed in the 1960s the previous position and quadrupled the financial support for Rashevsky's Committee for Mathematical Biology research activities ("''Reminiscences of Nicolas Rashevsky''." by Robert Rosen, written in late 1972). There was later however a fall out between the retiring Nicolas Rashevsky and the University of Chicago president over the successor to the Chair of the Committee of Mathematical Biology; Nicolas Rashevsky strongly supported Dr. Herbert Landahl-his first PhD student to graduate in Mathematical Biophysics, whereas the president wished to appoint a certain US biostatistician. The result was Rashevsky's move to the

University of Michigan , mottoeng = "Arts, Knowledge, Truth" , former_names = Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania (1817–1821) , budget = $10.3 billion (2021) , endowment = $17 billion (2021)As o ...

in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and his taking ownership of the well-funded "''Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics''".

Formation of Mathematical Biology, Inc.

He also formed in 1969 a non-profit organization, "''Mathematical Biology, Incorporated''", which was to be the precursor of ''"The Society for Mathematical Biology"'', with the purpose of "''dissemination of information regarding Mathematical Biology''". In his later years, after 1968, he became again very active in relational biology and held, as well as Chaired, in 1970 the first international "''Symposium of Mathematical Biology''" at Toledo, Ohio, in USA with the help of his former PhD student, Dr. Anthony Bartholomay, who has become the Chairman of the first Department of Mathematical Medicine at

Ohio University Ohio University is a Public university, public research university in Athens, Ohio. The first university chartered by an Act of Congress and the first to be chartered in Ohio, the university was chartered in 1787 by the Congress of the Confeder ...

. The meeting was sponsored by ''Mathematical Biology, Inc.''

Final quest for principles of biology

Rashevsky was greatly influenced and inspired both by Herbert Spencer's book on the Principles of Biology (1898), and also by J. H. Woodger `axiomatic (Mendelian) genetics', to launch his own search and quest for biological principles, and also to formulate mathematically precise principles and axioms of biology. He then developed his own highly original approach to address the fundamental question of

What is Life? ''What Is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell'' is a 1944 science book written for the lay reader by physicist Erwin Schrödinger. The book was based on a course of public lectures delivered by Schrödinger in February 1943, under the ...

that another theoretical physicist,

Erwin Schrödinger Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger (, ; ; 12 August 1887 – 4 January 1961), sometimes written as or , was a Nobel Prize-winning Austrian physicist with Irish citizenship who developed a number of fundamental results in quantum theory ...

, had asked before him from the narrower viewpoint of

quantum theory Quantum theory may refer to: Science *Quantum mechanics, a major field of physics *Old quantum theory, predating modern quantum mechanics * Quantum field theory, an area of quantum mechanics that includes: ** Quantum electrodynamics ** Quantum ...

in biology. He wished to reach this `holy grail' of (theoretical/ mathematical) biology, but his heavy work load during the late 1960s—despite his related health problems—took its toll, and finally prevented him in 1972 from reaching his ultimate goal. Rashevsky's relational approach represents a radical departure from reductionistic approaches, and it has greatly influenced the work of his student Robert Rosen.

Biography

In 1917, Nicolas Rashevsky joins the White Russian Navy and in 1920 he and his wife, Countess Emily had to flee for their lives to Constantinople where he taught at the American College. In 1921 they moved to Prague where he taught both special and

general relativity General relativity, also known as the general theory of relativity and Einstein's theory of gravity, is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and is the current description of gravitation in modern physics ...

. From Prague, he moved in the 1930s to Paris, France, and then to New York, Pittsburgh and Chicago, USA. His life has been dedicated to the science that he founded, Mathematical Biology, and his wife Emily was very supportive and appreciative of his scientific efforts, accompanying him at the scientific meetings that he either initiated or attended. He cut a tall, impressive figure with a slight Russian accent, but a clear voice and thought to the very day when in 1972 he died from a heart attack caused by

coronary heart disease Coronary artery disease (CAD), also called coronary heart disease (CHD), ischemic heart disease (IHD), myocardial ischemia, or simply heart disease, involves the reduction of blood flow to the heart muscle due to build-up of atherosclerotic pla ...

. His generosity was very well known and is often recognized in print by former associates or visitors. As the Chief Editor of BMB he had a declared policy of helping the authors to optimize their presentation of submitted papers, as well as proving many valuable suggestions to the submitting authors. His suggested detailed changes, additions and further developments were like a real `gold mine' for the submitting authors. He managed to stay aloof of all science `politics' most of the time, even in very adverse circumstances such as those during the McCarthy era when completely unfounded political accusations were made about one or two members of his close research group. Not unlike another American theoretical physicist

Robert Oppenheimer J. Robert Oppenheimer (; April 22, 1904 – February 18, 1967) was an American theoretical physicist. A professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley, Oppenheimer was the wartime head of the Los Alamos Laboratory and is often ...

, he then had much to lose for his loyal support of the wrongly accused researcher in his group.

Works

* Physico-mathematical aspects of Excitation and Conduction in Nerves., ''Cold Springs Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology.IV: Excitation Phenomena.'', 1936, p.90. * ''Mathematical Biophysics:Physico-Mathematical Foundations of Biology''. Univ. of Chicago Press. : Chicago Press, 1938/1948 (2nd ed.). * ''Mathematical Theory of Human Relations: An Approach to Mathematical Biology of Social Phenomena''. Bloomington, ID: Principia Press, 1947/1949 (2nd ed.) * Topology and life: In search of general mathematical principles in biology and sociology. ''Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics'' 16 (1954): 317–348. * ''Proceedings of the International School of Physics'' "Enrico Fermi", Course 16, ''Physico-Mathematical Aspects of Biology''. : Academic Press, 1964 * ''Some Medical Aspects of Mathematical Biology.'' Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1964 * The Representation of Organisms in Terms of Predicates, ''Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics'' 27 (1965): 477–491. * Outline of a Unified Approach to Physics, Biology and Sociology., ''Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics'' 31 (1969): 159–198. *''Looking at History through Mathematics'', 1972 * ''Organismic Sets.'', William Clowes & Sons., London, Beccles and Cochester, 1972.

Notes and references

The article also incorporates additional data fro
planetphysics.org
furthermore, both external entries are original, contributed objects in the public domain.

External links

Books by Rashevsky

The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics

Rashevsky's theory of two-factor systems for neural networksGuide to the Nicolas Rashevsky Papers 1920-1972
at th
University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
{{DEFAULTSORT:Rashevsky, Nicholas 1899 births 1972 deaths American biophysicists 20th-century American mathematicians 20th-century American physicists Theoretical biologists Theoretical physicists Ukrainian biophysicists Ukrainian mathematicians 20th-century Ukrainian physicists University of Michigan faculty Fellows of the American Physical Society 20th-century biologists